Ziklag 10.25 - Man of God

Deceit, Dominion, Sympathy and Jubilee

A Man of God

Paul and Timothy: A Model of Spiritual Mentorship

In the New Testament, Paul calls Timothy a “man of God” (1 Timothy 6:11), urging him to pursue virtues that reflect a life fully dedicated to God. Paul’s letters to Timothy emphasize personal discipline, sound doctrine, and a life grounded in Scripture:

• 1 Timothy 4:7-8: “Exercise yourself toward godliness. For bodily exercise profits a little, but godliness is profitable for all things, having promise of the life that now is and of that which is to come.”

• 2 Timothy 3:16-17: “All Scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness, that the man of God may be complete, thoroughly equipped for every good work.”

Moses and the Prophets: A Legacy of Obedience and Faithfulness

In the Old Testament, the title “man of God” is given to prophets and leaders who were specially called to represent God and communicate His will. Moses, called a “man of God” in Deuteronomy 33:1, models obedience, perseverance, and humility, despite his own shortcomings and challenges. Similarly, Elijah and Elisha bore this title as they boldly proclaimed God’s truth to a rebellious nation.

• Deuteronomy 18:18-19: God tells Moses, “I will raise up for them a Prophet like you from among their brethren, and will put My words in His mouth, and He shall speak to them all that I command Him.”

• 1 Kings 17:24: The widow tells Elijah, “Now by this I know that you are a man of God, and that the word of the Lord in your mouth is the truth.”

Part 1: Knowledge (In the Hand)

• Psalm 19:7-8: “The law of the Lord is perfect, converting the soul; the testimony of the Lord is sure, making wise the simple. The statutes of the Lord are right, rejoicing the heart; the commandment of the Lord is pure, enlightening the eyes.”

• Psalm 119:9-11: “How can a young man cleanse his way? By taking heed according to Your word. With my whole heart I have sought You; Oh, let me not wander from Your commandments! Your word I have hidden in my heart, that I might not sin against You.”

• Proverbs 1:7: “The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge, but fools despise wisdom and instruction.”

• Proverbs 2:6: “For the Lord gives wisdom; from His mouth come knowledge and understanding.”

Reflection: Let these Scriptures remind us that true knowledge starts with reverence for God and obedience to His word.

Part 2: Wisdom (With the Eye)

• Psalm 111:10: “The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom; a good understanding have all those who do His commandments. His praise endures forever.”

• Psalm 90:12: “So teach us to number our days, that we may gain a heart of wisdom.”

• Proverbs 3:5-7: “Trust in the Lord with all your heart, and lean not on your own understanding; in all your ways acknowledge Him, and He shall direct your paths. Do not be wise in your own eyes; fear the Lord and depart from evil.”

• Proverbs 4:7: “Wisdom is the principal thing; therefore get wisdom. And in all your getting, get understanding.”

Reflection: Wisdom here is seeing life through God’s eyes, marked by humble trust in Him.

Part 3: Discipline (On the Heart)

• Psalm 51:10: “Create in me a clean heart, O God, and renew a steadfast spirit within me.”

• Psalm 119:33-36: “Teach me, O Lord, the way of Your statutes, and I shall keep it to the end. Give me understanding, and I shall keep Your law; indeed, I shall observe it with my whole heart. Make me walk in the path of Your commandments, for I delight in it. Incline my heart to Your testimonies, and not to covetousness.”

• Proverbs 3:11-12: “My son, do not despise the chastening of the Lord, nor detest His correction; for whom the Lord loves He corrects, just as a father the son in whom he delights.”

• Proverbs 6:23: “For the commandment is a lamp, and the law a light; reproofs of instruction are the way of life.”

Reflection: Discipline the heart to seek God’s way, and find delight in submission.

Part 4: Justice (Accuracy)

• Psalm 37:28: “For the Lord loves justice, and does not forsake His saints; they are preserved forever, but the descendants of the wicked shall be cut off.”

• Psalm 82:3-4: “Defend the poor and fatherless; do justice to the afflicted and needy. Deliver the poor and needy; free them from the hand of the wicked.”

• Proverbs 21:3: “To do righteousness and justice is more acceptable to the Lord than sacrifice.”

• Proverbs 29:7: “The righteous considers the cause of the poor, but the wicked does not understand such knowledge.”

Reflection: God’s man prioritizes fairness, knowing that righteousness is shown through just actions.

Part 5: Judgment (Measurement)

• Psalm 1:1-2: “Blessed is the man who walks not in the counsel of the ungodly, nor stands in the path of sinners, nor sits in the seat of the scornful; but his delight is in the law of the Lord, and in His law he meditates day and night.”

• Psalm 119:66: “Teach me good judgment and knowledge, for I believe Your commandments.”

• Proverbs 2:9: “Then you will understand righteousness and justice, equity and every good path.”

• Proverbs 11:1: “Dishonest scales are an abomination to the Lord, but a just weight is His delight.”

Reflection: Psalm 1 gives a clear measure for judgment—meditating on God’s Word.

Part 6: Equity (Symmetry)

• Psalm 25:8-9: “Good and upright is the Lord; therefore He teaches sinners in the way. The humble He guides in justice, and the humble He teaches His way.”

• Psalm 72:2-4: “He will judge Your people with righteousness, and Your poor with justice. The mountains will bring peace to the people, and the little hills, by righteousness. He will bring justice to the poor of the people; He will save the children of the needy, and will break in pieces the oppressor.”

• Proverbs 2:21: “For the upright will dwell in the land, and the blameless will remain in it.”

• Proverbs 16:11: “Honest weights and scales are the Lord’s; all the weights in the bag are His work.”

Reflection: Partiality is akin to sin.

Final Reflections on the Man of God

• Psalm 1:3: “He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water, that brings forth its fruit in its season, whose leaf also shall not wither; and whatever he does shall prosper.”

• Proverbs 9:10: “The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom, and the knowledge of the Holy One is understanding.”

The Depth of Deceit

Proverbs 12:20 in the Hebrew

“Deceit is in the heart of those who devise evil, but those who counsel peace have joy.”(Proverbs 12:20)

At first glance, Proverbs 12:20 offers an obvious truth: deceit springs from those with ill intentions, while those who work for peace experience joy. This observation seems straightforward enough in translation. However, when we delve into the Hebrew language, the proverb reveals a profound insight into human behavior, showing how language and worldview intertwine to convey a far richer understanding of deceit and its motivations.

The word for “deceit” in this proverb, מִרְמָה (mirmāh), is derived from the Hebrew root ר-מ-ה (resh-mem-he), a root that carries specific, action-oriented and substance-based implications. Understanding מִרְמָה through its linguistic roots shows how the proverb speaks not just to the superficial aspects of deceit, but to the deeper, active intentions that drive it. Proverbs 12:20 thus serves as a moral mirror, revealing the inner motivations of the “deviser of evil” as something far more dynamic than mere untruthfulness.

In biblical Hebrew, roots often embody physical actions or substantial images, and the root ר-מ-ה is no exception. While in English we might think of deceit as merely the absence of truth, the Hebrew perspective implies a kind of “casting down”—an act that seeks to harm others or lower them from a “higher place” in order to create separation or establish oneself above them. Seen through this lens, מִרְמָה (mirmāh) in Proverbs 12:20 becomes a dynamic act rather than a passive state of falsehood.

The Physical Actions of ר-מ-ה (r-m-h)

The root ר-מ-ה carries an underlying sense of physical movement or action, particularly actions associated with casting or setting traps. This perspective suggests that deceit is not simply a matter of lying or distorting facts, but rather a process of manipulation and “trapping.”

1. Casting Down: In other Semitic languages, related roots to ר-מ-ה have meanings such as “to cast down” or “to lay low.” This imagery reveals deceit as an act that “throws” someone off balance or brings them down from a secure position. The “deceiver” then becomes someone who, through trickery, lowers another person from their rightful place.

2. Setting Traps: Hebrew often uses words from ר-מ-ה to describe laying traps for others, whether literal or figurative. The deceiver, therefore, is not merely someone who misleads, but someone who deliberately sets up situations to ensnare others. Just as a hunter carefully prepares a snare to entrap animals, a deceiver crafts circumstances, using cunning and concealment, to entrap those around them.

In Proverbs 12:20, when deceit is said to be “in the heart” of those who devise evil, it implies that this laying of traps is an inward intention, a premeditated act. The devising heart is focused not only on deception but on undermining or “casting down” those around them. The depth of this meaning highlights the intensity of deceit; it is not an incidental lie but an intentional, calculated effort to harm others while obscuring one’s motives.

Deceit as a Means to Elevate Oneself

The root ר-מ-ה also relates to the concept of “elevation” or “height” in Hebrew thought. This gives us an interesting duality: deceit (מִרְמָה) involves casting others down while implicitly elevating oneself. Those who devise evil use deceit as a tool to shift the social or moral order in their favor. By “casting down” others, they create a relative rise for themselves, assuming a higher position from which to view others.

This insight gives new meaning to the Hebrew phrase “in the heart” (בְּלֵב, b’lev) of the evil deviser. The deceiver carries an inner drive to place themselves above others, manipulating situations or people to achieve that position. This elevation through deceit implies a selfish ambition, driven by a desire to be “higher up alone,” secured by the harm done to others.

A Rule of Wisdom and Insight

What initially appears to be a straightforward warning about the dangers of deceit and the rewards of peaceful counsel now emerges as a sophisticated reflection on human motives. The proverb reveals the profound social and spiritual consequences of deceit: it is not merely a violation of truth but a calculated act aimed at destabilizing others for personal gain.

In contrast, the second half of Proverbs 12:20 celebrates those who “counsel peace.” These individuals experience joy, not because of manipulation or the disruption of others, but because their inner motivation promotes harmony and integrity. The proverb offers a clear choice, then, between two ways of being: one rooted in lifting oneself at the expense of others, and the other rooted in communal well-being, bringing joy not just to oneself but to all.

By uncovering the layers within מִרְמָה (mirmāh), we see Proverbs 12:20 as more than a simple observation. It provides a rule of life that cautions against the seductive yet destructive power of deceit, illustrating how Hebrew language, with its grounding in action and substance, gives us a unique lens to understand the hidden motivations of the heart.

Dominion in Two Kinds

Humility is often viewed as a virtue we can cultivate, a personal achievement we work toward. Yet, when we look at the biblical portrayal of humility, particularly in the life of Moses, we see something much deeper: humility as the result of God’s discipline, a posture forged through suffering and trust in God’s faithfulness. This humility is not about personal strength or self-will; it is the fruit of a life lived under the sovereign hand of God, a life that experiences both brokenness and redemption.

In the stories of both Moses and Jesus, we encounter two kinds of dominion: one driven by anxiety and fear, and the other by trust and submission to God. These two paths—one of forced submission and the other of thriving humility—offer us insight into how God shapes our hearts through His discipline and care.

Moses: The Most Humble Man on Earth

In Numbers 12:3, Moses is described as “very humble, more than anyone else on the face of the earth.” The Hebrew word עָנָו (anav), meaning “humble” or “meek,” is used here to characterize a man who was not born into humility but shaped by a lifetime of struggle and obedience to God.

This declaration of Moses’ humility comes within a surprising context. Right before this verse, his own siblings, Aaron and Miriam, attempt to challenge his authority. They question why God has spoken only through Moses, and whether they, too, should have a share in his leadership. This moment is not a minor disagreement—it is a coup attempt, a bid to overthrow Moses’ divinely appointed leadership. The tension is palpable, but how does Moses respond? He doesn’t defend himself. He doesn’t argue or seek to justify his position. Instead, he stands silent, trusting God to act on his behalf.

God does act, rebuking Aaron and Miriam and reaffirming Moses’ unique position as His chosen servant. But the striking part of the story is that Moses, even in the face of betrayal by his own family, exhibits the humility of one who knows his standing before God is secure. He is not grasping for power, nor is he threatened by their attack. Moses has learned, through years of hardship, to place his confidence in God’s purposes rather than in his own ability to lead or defend himself.

This humility, however, is not something Moses has cultivated on his own. His life is marked by suffering, from his exile in Midian, to the constant grumbling and rebellion of the Israelites, to the burden of leading a stiff-necked people through the wilderness. Moses’ humility is the product of God’s shaping—a life-long process of discipline that has taught him to trust, not in his own strength, but in God’s faithful guidance.

Trembling vs. Thriving

Moses’ humility stands in sharp contrast to the anxiety-filled heart described in Proverbs 12:25: “Anxiety in a man’s heart weighs him down, but a good word makes him glad.” The word for “anxiety” here, דְּאָגָה (de’agah), carries the idea of fear and worry that crushes the spirit. It represents the kind of submission that is forced, where external pressures dominate and the heart trembles under the weight of uncertainty.

In Proverbs, this anxious heart is subject to a dominion of fear. It is bowed down by circumstances, struggling under the pressures of life. This is the forced submission of one who feels out of control, where worry takes over, and the heart cannot rest.

Moses, on the other hand, lives under a different kind of dominion—the dominion of thriving humility. His heart is bowed before God, not because of fear, but because of trust. Through years of suffering, he has learned to submit to God’s will, knowing that it is not his role to carry the weight of leadership alone. His humility is not the product of self-effort but of God’s shaping hand, and it results in a life that thrives even under pressure.

The difference between these two kinds of dominion is profound. The anxious heart in Proverbs is overwhelmed by its own limitations, constantly striving to control the uncontrollable. But the humble heart, like Moses’, submits to God’s sovereignty, knowing that He alone is in control. It is a heart that thrives, not because it is free from suffering, but because it is free from the need to control.

Jesus: The Lowly Heart of God

In Matthew 11:29, Jesus invites us to take His yoke upon us and “learn from Me, for I am gentle and lowly in heart, and you will find rest for your souls.” The word for “lowly” here, ταπεινός (tapeinos), mirrors the humility of Moses. But Jesus takes it further, offering not only a model of humility but also a direct path to rest and peace.

Where Moses was a servant of God, shaped by suffering, Jesus is the very embodiment of God’s humility, submitting Himself even to death on a cross. In Philippians 2:8, Paul writes, “And being found in human form, He humbled Himself by becoming obedient to the point of death, even death on a cross.” This is the ultimate expression of the anav heart—the lowliness of God, who not only leads us but saves us through His own suffering and sacrifice.

On the cross, we see the true heart of God—a heart that does not dominate through fear or force but leads through humility and love. Jesus, the God who saved Moses and led him through the wilderness, is the same God who submits to death so that we might live. His lowliness is not weakness but the strength of one who trusts completely in the Father’s will.

Humility: The Result of God’s Discipline

The humility we see in Moses, and ultimately in Jesus, is not something we are called to manufacture through our own efforts. It is the result of God’s work in us, often through the refining fires of suffering and discipline. Just as Moses was shaped by years of hardship and service, so too are we shaped by God’s hand, learning to trust in His wisdom rather than our own.

This is the kind of dominion that thrives—humility born from faith in God’s faithfulness. It is not about grasping for power or control, but about surrendering to the One who holds all things in His hands. In this posture of trust, we find rest for our souls, as Jesus promises in Matthew 11.

Conclusion: The God Who Saves

Ultimately, the story of Moses points us beyond himself to Jesus, the one who both leads and saves. Moses was a man of sorrows, often betrayed and misunderstood, but his humility was the result of a lifetime of trusting in God. Jesus, however, is the God who saved Moses, the God who, in His own humility, went to the cross to save us all.

In Jesus, we find the perfect lowly heart, the heart of God who offers us rest. His humility is not an abstract ideal but a concrete promise: that those who come to Him will find relief from the heavy burdens of anxiety and self-reliance. His dominion is one of love and compassion, where humility is the path to peace and submission is the doorway to thriving.

In a world full of trembling hearts, bowed down by fear and worry, Jesus invites us to take on His yoke, to learn from His humility, and to find rest in the God who saves. This is the path of true submission—the submission that leads to life, peace, and ultimately, joy in the presence of God.

Curer of Souls

The phrase “curer of souls” carries deep roots in the Christian tradition, grounded in biblical concepts of healing, restoration, and spiritual care. These roles resonate with the biblical offices of prophet, priest, and king in both the Old and New Testaments. Below is a bibliolinguistic examination of how this phrase aligns with the role of the modern Protestant Christian as prophet, priest, and king, encapsulating the apostolic and universal ministry of soul care.

1. The Role of Healing in Biblical and Apostolic Ministry

• The concept of the “curer of souls” closely aligns with the biblical theme of healing (Greek: ἴαμα; iama) and wholeness (Hebrew: שָׁלוֹם; shalom, meaning peace and completeness). Jesus’ ministry included profound acts of physical and spiritual healing, and His followers were commissioned to continue this work. In Matthew 10:1, Jesus gives His disciples “authority over unclean spirits, to cast them out, and to heal every disease and every affliction” (ESV). This mandate is echoed in the Great Commission (Matthew 28:19-20), where the disciples are called to extend Jesus’ healing presence in a broken world.

• The term “soul” (Hebrew: נֶפֶשׁ; nephesh, and Greek: ψυχή; psyche) signifies the whole person’s inner life and being. Healing or “curing” the soul encompasses spiritual, emotional, and even physical dimensions, echoing the biblical understanding of salvation (soteria) as both deliverance and restoration.

2. Prophet: Bearing the Word and Bringing Conviction

• The prophetic function traditionally involves conveying God’s word, calling for repentance, and revealing God’s vision for His people. Prophets like Isaiah and Jeremiah acted as agents of both rebuke and comfort (Isaiah 40:1). The “curer of souls” today, acting in the prophetic role, brings God’s truth to bear on individuals’ lives, helping them confront sin and experience transformation.

• In the New Testament, Paul describes prophecy as a means of “strengthening, encouraging, and comforting” (1 Corinthians 14:3), which has a healing effect. Protestant Christians, functioning in this role, speak God’s truth to bring conviction, leading to repentance and healing, thereby restoring the soul.

3. Priest: Intercession and Mediating Grace

• The priestly role focuses on intercession, reconciliation, and mediating God’s grace. Hebrews 4:14-16 describes Jesus as the Great High Priest who sympathizes with human weakness, an empathetic intercessor who draws people into God’s presence for mercy and healing.

• Protestant Christians are called “a royal priesthood” (1 Peter 2:9), emphasizing their participation in Jesus’ priestly ministry. By praying for others, offering pastoral care, and guiding people into God’s presence, they “cure souls” through spiritual intercession and sacrificial service, embodying Christ’s love.

4. King: Leading with Justice and Compassion

• The kingly role involves ruling with wisdom and justice, aligned with the image of Christ as the “King of Kings” (Revelation 19:16). A king is to shepherd, protect, and guide, which has healing implications. King David, a “man after God’s own heart,” exemplified this as a shepherd-king who deeply cared for his people (Psalm 78:72).

• For modern Christians, the kingly function is exercised through leadership that establishes justice, peace, and order, reflecting God’s character and healing the wounds of social and spiritual disorder. By engaging in social justice, ethical governance, and compassionate leadership, Christians help “cure” societal ills and create a just environment conducive to soul health.

5. Apostolic and Catholic Call to Soul-Care

• The work of soul care is apostolic because it follows the example and teachings of the apostles, who embodied Jesus’ holistic mission (Acts 2:42-47). Apostolic work involves bringing wholeness to communities through prayer, teaching, fellowship, and the breaking of bread—acts that “cure souls” by fostering spiritual vitality and community.

• It is also catholic, or universal, in its mission to reach every person in every generation. Caring for souls transcends denominational lines and connects with the essence of Jesus’ commission to His disciples. Christians across all traditions share in the mandate to cure and care for souls, embodying Christ’s love universally.

Summary: The Modern Christian as “Curer of Souls”

• In sum, the phrase “curer of souls” is fitting for the prophet-priest-king identity of the Protestant Christian, embodying both the apostolic and universal call to participate in Christ’s mission of healing. As prophet, they declare God’s truth for repentance and restoration; as priest, they intercede and guide others to grace; and as king, they establish justice and peace. In doing so, they follow the biblical model of holistic care for the soul, affirming that soul-curing is not just a pastoral or clerical role but a shared Christian vocation grounded in Scripture and empowered by the Spirit.

Sympathetics in a Nervous System

I. Introduction

A. Statement of the Thesis

The relationship between sympathy and empathy has been the subject of much philosophical and psychological debate. This thesis argues that sympathy is a virtue, primarily focused on others, while empathy can be more self-oriented, concerned with one’s own emotional resonance with another’s feelings. Sympathy, understood as a deep concern for the well-being of others, seeks to act out of love, while empathy can, at times, reflect self-referential emotional experience.

Sympathy, as rooted in the Scriptures and embodied by Christ, becomes an expression of divine love—where one enters into the suffering of others with the goal of healing, restoration, and compassion. Empathy, while valuable in many contexts, risks being self-focused if it remains on the level of emotional mirroring without resulting in outward action. Thus, true Christian virtue, modeled by Christ’s incarnation and sacrifice, exemplifies sympathy rather than mere empathy.

B. Purpose and Significance

The purpose of this thesis is to clarify the conceptual distinction between sympathy and empathy, tracing the terms etymologically, historically, and psychologically through classical, Christian, and modern lenses. The analysis will then shift to a theological exploration, particularly through a Scriptural lens, to show how God’s sympathy, manifest in Christ, serves as the model for human regeneration and moral transformation.

The significance of this study lies in the need to recover sympathy as a Christian virtue, one that is not merely emotional identification but transformative action rooted in divine love. Empathy, while important in understanding others’ emotions, can remain self-focused if not directed toward virtuous, sacrificial action. Sympathy, in contrast, flows from God’s heart toward humanity and invites believers to mirror this outward-directed love.

C. Methodology

This thesis will proceed in three parts:

1. Etymological and Historical Analysis: A detailed examination of the etymology and historical development of both sympathy and empathy, drawing from classical Greek philosophy, early Christian theology, and modern psychology.

2. Scriptural Exegesis: A theological analysis focusing on the biblical concept of shared suffering, particularly the sum-pathos of God in Christ, and how this reflects true sympathy in both Old and New Testament contexts.

3. Theological and Practical Applications: An exploration of how Christ’s sympathy regenerates the human heart, encouraging believers to live out sympathy as a core Christian virtue in pastoral care, counseling, and ethical living.

II. Definitions and Etymology of Sympathy and Empathy

A. Sympathy (Sum-pathos)

1. Etymology

The word “sympathy” originates from the Greek term συμπάθεια (sympathia), combining “συν” (sun), meaning “together with,” and “πάθος” (pathos), meaning “suffering” or “experience.” Thus, sympathy literally means “to suffer together” or “to share in suffering.” The term evolved to encompass a broader meaning of fellow-feeling, where one not only recognizes another’s suffering but shares in it emotionally and morally. In classical Greek philosophy, the notion of sympathy involved an ethical connection to others, prompting action and moral responsibility.

2. Historical Development

• Classical Philosophy: In Stoicism, sympathy was a natural phenomenon that linked all rational beings together, suggesting that the well-being of one individual was tied to the well-being of the whole community. Aristotle, in his ethical writings, connected sympathy with moral virtue, recognizing it as a compassionate response toward the misfortune of others.

• Christian Thought: Early Christian theologians expanded the notion of sympathy to reflect divine love. Sympathy was viewed as an essential characteristic of God, especially in His relationship with humanity. God’s compassion, most clearly seen in Christ’s incarnation, is an act of divine sympathy, sharing in human suffering to restore and redeem. This theological development positioned sympathy as a fundamental Christian virtue, an outward expression of God’s love.

• Moral Philosophy: Sympathy continued to be viewed as an important virtue in modern moral philosophy, especially in the writings of thinkers like David Hume and Adam Smith, who saw it as essential for moral judgments and ethical relationships.

B. Empathy (En-pathos)

1. Etymology

“Empathy” derives from the Greek ἐμπάθεια (empatheia), from “ἐν” (en), meaning “in” or “within,” and “πάθος” (pathos), meaning “suffering” or “emotion.” It originally referred to the projection of one’s own feelings into something else. Empathy, as we understand it today, was coined in the early 20th century as a translation of the German word Einfühlung (literally, “feeling into”), used to describe the way a person mentally projects themselves into the feelings or experiences of others.

2. Historical Development

• Phenomenology: In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, empathy became an important concept in psychology and phenomenology, especially through the work of philosophers like Edmund Husserl. It was understood as the ability to understand and experience another’s emotional state by mentally placing oneself in their situation.

• Modern Psychology: In contemporary psychology, empathy has been defined as the ability to resonate with or mirror another person’s emotions. It is seen as an important component of emotional intelligence and relational understanding, but some psychologists argue that it can become self-oriented. Paul Bloom, in his critique of empathy, argues that excessive emotional mirroring can lead to emotional burnout and an inability to make objective, ethical decisions. Empathy, when it remains on the level of feeling rather than action, may fail to produce the kind of outwardly focused care that sympathy fosters.

III. Historical Perspectives on Sympathy and Empathy

A. Classical Views

1. Sympathy in Stoicism and Aristotelian Ethics

• Stoicism: In Stoic philosophy, sympathy was seen as a fundamental principle of the universe, connecting all rational beings within a grand, natural order. The Stoics believed that humans, as rational beings, are interconnected and that individual well-being is tied to the collective well-being of society. Sympathy, in this view, was not merely emotional but rooted in moral and rational engagement with others.

• Aristotle: Aristotle recognized sympathy as a key aspect of virtuous living, though he framed it more in terms of philia (friendship) and eleos (pity). For Aristotle, the virtue of pity (closely aligned with sympathy) was a rational response to the suffering of others. He argued that sympathy involves an intellectual recognition of suffering, followed by a desire to alleviate it.

2. Sympathy in Early Christian Theology

• Church Fathers and Sympathy: Early Christian theologians like Augustine and Gregory of Nyssa developed the concept of sympathy in connection with Christ’s sacrificial nature. Sympathy, for them, was divine compassion. The Church Fathers emphasized sympathy as an expression of Christian ethics, reflecting God’s love.

• Atonement and Sympathy: The doctrine of the atonement, especially in its substitutionary form, exemplifies sympathy. Christ’s sacrificial love is viewed as God entering into human suffering, bearing the weight of sin, and restoring humanity.

B. Modern Psychological Perspectives

1. Sympathy in Developmental Psychology

Sympathy, often defined as compassionate concern, motivates altruistic behavior. Daniel Batson’s research highlights that sympathy leads to self-sacrificial actions.

2. Empathy in Cognitive and Emotional Psychology

Empathy involves resonating with another’s emotional state. Figures like Carl Rogers emphasize empathy in therapeutic relationships. However, recent critiques like Paul Bloom’s highlight its limitations, particularly its self-referential tendencies, distinguishing sympathy as a more outwardly focused virtue.

IV. Biblical Understanding of Sympathy and Empathy

A. Old Testament Foundations

1. Covenantal Compassion (חֶסֶד, “hesed”)

God’s covenantal love is described as hesed, reflecting His compassionate commitment to His people. This divine sympathy is action-oriented, as God enters into Israel’s suffering and acts on their behalf.

2. Justice and Mercy in the Law

The Law of Moses emphasizes sympathy through commands to care for the vulnerable. God’s example of hesed calls for active, compassionate care.

B. New Testament Theology

1. Christ as the Sum-Pathos of God

The incarnation and atonement reveal God’s sympathy. Christ’s suffering reflects divine compassion, and His actions offer the ultimate model of sympathy in restoring humanity.

2. Christ’s Compassion in the Gospels

Jesus’ sympathy in the Gospels is marked by acts of healing and restoration. His sympathy is transformative, compelling Him to act on behalf of others, contrasting with the self-referential risks of empathy.

V. Implications for Christian Living and Theology

A. Pastoral Applications

1. Sympathy in Ministry and Counseling

Christian pastoral care must be rooted in sympathy, engaging with the suffering of others and providing meaningful support. Sympathy calls for action, reflecting Christ’s compassionate love.

2. Christian Community and Bearing One Another’s Burdens

Sympathy in the Christian community fosters shared responsibility and care, reflecting the early Church’s practice of communal life and service.

B. Moral and Ethical Considerations

1. Sympathy and Ethical Decision-Making

Sympathy guides ethical decisions toward compassionate justice. Christian ethics emphasizes acting justly and mercifully in response to suffering.

2. The Dangers of Empathy-Driven Moral Confusion

Empathy can lead to biased moral decisions. Sympathy offers a corrective by focusing on just and compassionate action rather than emotional partiality.

C. Sympathy as a Virtue in Christian Ethics

1. The Virtue of Sympathy in Imitating Christ

Sympathy reflects Christ’s sacrificial love, calling Christians to engage with the suffering of others in transformative ways.

2. The Call to Compassionate Action

Sympathy demands action, not just emotional resonance, aligning with the Christian mandate to love others sacrificially.

VI. Conclusion

Summary of Key Insights

• Sympathy, distinct from empathy, is an outwardly focused virtue reflecting God’s compassionate love.

• Sympathy calls for transformative action, rooted in divine love, to alleviate suffering.

Recovering sympathy as a Christian virtue is essential for pastoral ministry and personal discipleship, moving believers beyond emotional identification to transformative action in the name of Christ.

Jubilee

God’s Blueprint for Freedom, Rest, and Restoration

I. Introduction to Jubilee (Leviticus 25:8-10)

• Explanation of Jubilee: Introduced in Leviticus 25:8-10, the Jubilee year occurred every 50th year, following seven cycles of sabbatical years. God commands, “Consecrate the fiftieth year and proclaim liberty throughout the land to all its inhabitants” (Lev 25:10, NIV).

• Purpose of Jubilee: Jubilee was intended to reset the economic and social structure, offering freedom to debtors, returning land to original owners, and allowing rest for the land. This event emphasizes God’s ownership of all creation (Lev 25:23).

• Application Point: The Jubilee is a declaration that all resources, lives, and destinies belong to God. It invites us to trust Him as the ultimate provider and sovereign over time and possessions.

II. Theme 1: Liberation and Release (Leviticus 25:10, 39-42)

• Release for Debtors and Servants: Jubilee mandated that indentured servants (Israelites who had fallen into servitude due to debt) were to be released (Lev 25:39-42). This demonstrates God’s desire to prevent perpetual bondage and restore human dignity.

• God’s Concern for Economic Justice: The Jubilee laws addressed systemic poverty by ensuring that generational debt did not permanently enslave individuals or families. This principle of economic reset highlights God’s desire for equity and justice among His people.

• Fulfillment in Christ: In Luke 4:18-19, Jesus proclaims himself as the fulfillment of the Jubilee by declaring “liberty to the captives.” Through the cross, Christ offers ultimate release from the bondage of sin and death.

• Application Point: We are called to model Jubilee principles by advocating for justice, helping those in bondage, and forgiving debts as a reflection of God’s grace toward us.

III. Theme 2: Rest for the Land (Leviticus 25:11-12)

• Sabbatical Rest for Creation: During the Jubilee, the land was not to be sown, harvested, or worked. This rest acknowledges that the earth and its produce belong to God, reflecting a Sabbath for the land.

• Trust in God’s Provision: Jubilee required the Israelites to trust God for their sustenance in the Jubilee year. God promises His provision, stating, “I will send you such a blessing in the sixth year that the land will yield enough for three years” (Lev 25:21).

• Environmental Stewardship: The theology of Jubilee emphasizes care for creation, recognizing that overuse and exploitation are counter to God’s design. This calls us to sustainable practices that honor God’s creation.

• Application Point: Just as God provided for Israel in the Jubilee year, we can trust Him with our needs and resources, including practicing rest and care for creation in obedience to His commands.

IV. Theme 3: Restoration of Family and Property (Leviticus 25:13, 23-24)

• Return of Land and Property: Every Jubilee, land that was sold due to economic hardship was to be returned to its original family, preserving the inheritance and ensuring that no one permanently lost their ancestral land.

• God’s Ownership of the Land: God declares, “The land must not be sold permanently, because the land is mine and you reside in my land as foreigners and strangers” (Lev 25:23). Jubilee reflects the concept that humans are stewards, not owners, of God’s creation.

• Restoration as a Principle of Redemption: Jubilee foreshadows spiritual restoration in Christ, who redeems us and restores us to our place as heirs in God’s family. Paul echoes this idea in Ephesians 1:11, stating, “In him we have obtained an inheritance.”

• Application Point: We are invited to embrace restoration and reconciliation within our families, communities, and relationship with God, knowing that He is the restorer of all that was lost.

V. Theme 4: God’s Sovereignty and Holiness in Jubilee (Leviticus 25:17-18)

• Holy Ordinance: Jubilee is not merely a social program but a holy ordinance, a “Sabbath to the Lord” (Lev 25:2). Observing Jubilee is an act of obedience that recognizes God’s sovereignty over time, resources, and people.

• Dependence on God’s Law: The call to observe Jubilee reminds the Israelites to rely on God’s instructions, not on economic systems or human ownership. This obedience shapes their identity as a holy, set-apart people.

• Eternal Rest in Christ: Hebrews 4:9-10 teaches that Christ offers a “Sabbath rest” for believers, where we cease from our works and rest in His completed work of redemption. In Christ, we experience a Jubilee rest that will culminate in eternal life.

• Application Point: By honoring God’s sovereignty, we remember that everything we have comes from Him. This trust frees us to live lives of generosity, humility, and holiness as reflections of His grace.

VI. Conclusion: Jubilee as a Picture of Redemption

• Summary of Jubilee’s Message: Jubilee serves as a profound image of God’s mercy, justice, and restoration. It establishes liberation from bondage, rest for creation, restoration of relationships, and a declaration of God’s ultimate authority.

• Call to Live the Jubilee Ethic: We are called to live the spirit of Jubilee by advocating for justice, practicing forgiveness, and trusting in God’s provision and sovereignty. By doing so, we proclaim the freedom and grace of Christ in our communities.

• Fulfillment in Christ: In Christ, we find the ultimate Jubilee, a permanent release from sin and reconciliation with God. Jesus is the fulfillment of the Jubilee promise, offering us rest and restoration now and in eternity.

Closing Scripture: “If the Son sets you free, you will be free indeed” (John 8:36). As we embrace the Jubilee ethic, we are reminded of our freedom in Christ and the call to extend that freedom to others.

Jubilee in Biblical Theology:

From Leviticus to Fulfillment in Christ

I. Leviticus 25: The Establishment of Jubilee

• Key Text: Leviticus 25:8-55

• Principles of Jubilee:

• Liberation: Debt release and freedom for indentured servants every 50 years (Lev 25:10, 39-42).

• Restoration: Land returned to original families, ensuring long-term stability and preventing generational poverty (Lev 25:13, 23-24).

• Sabbath Rest: Both land and people experience a Sabbath rest, underscoring dependence on God (Lev 25:4, 11).

• Theological Implication: God’s ownership of land and people (Lev 25:23) forms the basis for Jubilee, teaching that all resources are ultimately God’s and stewarded for mutual blessing.

• Application Point: Jubilee embodies a society built on trust in God’s provision, freedom, and justice, creating a model of divine mercy and equity.

II. Exodus 23:10-11 – Jubilee as an Extension of the Sabbath

• Principle of Sabbath Years: The law of letting the land rest every seven years provides an early model for the Jubilee.

• Compassion for the Poor and Environment: The seventh-year rest benefits both the land and the poor who glean from the fields, establishing an ethic of environmental stewardship and social justice (Exod 23:11).

• Theological Link: This rest symbolizes reliance on God rather than constant production, prefiguring Jubilee’s focus on liberation and rest.

III. Deuteronomy 15:1-11 – The Year of Debt Release

• Principle of Release: Every seventh year, debts were canceled, ensuring that debt did not become a permanent state of bondage (Deut 15:1).

• God’s Blessing for Obedience: By commanding debt release, God encourages compassion, promising blessing on those who give freely (Deut 15:10).

• Theological Link: Debt release every seventh year lays the groundwork for Jubilee, portraying God’s commitment to justice and compassion for those in need.

IV. Isaiah 61:1-3 – Proclaiming the “Year of the Lord’s Favor”

• Prophetic Link to Jubilee: Isaiah speaks of proclaiming liberty to captives, release to prisoners, and comfort for the brokenhearted—echoing Jubilee’s liberation theme (Isa 61:1-2).

• Fulfillment in Christ: Jesus reads this passage in Luke 4:18-19, identifying himself as the ultimate fulfillment of Jubilee, the one who brings permanent release from bondage and sin.

• Theological Link: Isaiah’s prophecy deepens Jubilee’s significance, suggesting that it ultimately points to a Messianic age of liberation.

V. Jeremiah 34:8-22 – Failure to Observe Jubilee’s Spirit

• Historical Context: King Zedekiah proclaims freedom for Hebrew slaves but later reverses it, prompting divine judgment (Jer 34:11).

• Consequences of Injustice: By violating the spirit of Jubilee, Israel faces condemnation, showing that God takes justice and mercy seriously.

• Theological Link: This episode shows that Jubilee’s principles are essential for maintaining covenantal faithfulness, highlighting the necessity of genuine liberation.

VI. Ezekiel 46:16-18 – Jubilee Principles in Property Rights

• Land Inheritance: Ezekiel reinforces the idea that land is not to be permanently transferred, respecting family inheritance (Ezek 46:16-18).

• Justice for the Vulnerable: This passage emphasizes that rulers must not deprive people of their land, aligning with Jubilee’s prohibition on permanent land sales.

• Theological Link: The Jubilee principle of restoring land underscores God’s desire for fair stewardship and protection of family inheritance.

VII. Luke 4:16-21 – Jesus Declares Jubilee Fulfilled

• Jesus’ Ministry as Jubilee: Jesus reads from Isaiah 61 in the synagogue, announcing the “year of the Lord’s favor” and inaugurating a spiritual Jubilee (Luke 4:18-19).

• The Year of Freedom: Jesus’ proclamation links His mission to the liberation and restoration promised in Jubilee, declaring freedom from spiritual bondage.

• Theological Link: Jesus embodies Jubilee, offering release from sin, rest for the soul, and restoration into God’s kingdom.

VIII. Matthew 18:21-35 – The Parable of the Unforgiving Servant

• Forgiveness as a Jubilee Principle: Jesus’ parable calls for forgiving debts as a reflection of God’s grace, mirroring the debt release of Jubilee.

• Theological Link: The kingdom of God operates on Jubilee principles, encouraging followers to forgive freely and release others from indebtedness.

IX. Acts 2:42-47 – The Early Church as a Jubilee Community

• Community of Sharing: The early church practiced communal sharing, distributing resources so no one was in need, embodying Jubilee values of equity and provision.

• Theological Link: The early church’s community life reflects Jubilee’s ideals, demonstrating that the kingdom of God is a place of radical generosity and justice.

X. Hebrews 4:1-11 – Entering God’s Rest

• Sabbath Rest Fulfilled: The author of Hebrews speaks of a Sabbath rest for God’s people, aligning with the rest for the land and people envisioned in Jubilee.

• Theological Link: The rest of Jubilee finds fulfillment in Christ’s eternal rest, inviting believers to trust in God’s provision and sovereignty.

XI. Romans 8:18-23 – Jubilee for Creation

• Creation’s Liberation: Paul describes creation “groaning” for liberation, reflecting Jubilee’s mandate for rest and renewal (Rom 8:21).

• Theological Link: Just as Jubilee restores people and land, Christ’s work offers redemption for all creation, leading to ultimate restoration.

XII. Colossians 1:13-14 – Redemption and Forgiveness as Spiritual Jubilee

• Release from the Domain of Darkness: Paul speaks of being “transferred” from darkness into Christ’s kingdom, a spiritual Jubilee of release from bondage (Col 1:13).

• Forgiveness of Sins: Jubilee forgiveness is fulfilled in the redemption Christ provides, liberating believers from sin’s debt.

• Theological Link: Through Christ, the spiritual essence of Jubilee—release and restoration—is realized in believers.

XIII. Revelation 21:1-5 – Ultimate Jubilee: New Creation

• New Heavens and New Earth: Revelation promises a final restoration where God’s people live in His presence, free from sin, death, and suffering.

• Theological Link: The Jubilee themes of restoration and renewal reach their ultimate fulfillment in the new creation, where all things are made new.

XIV. Conclusion – Living in the Jubilee of Christ

• Summary: Jubilee is more than a single event; it is a framework of liberation, justice, and restoration, woven throughout Scripture and fulfilled in Jesus.

• Application: We are called to embody Jubilee by forgiving, restoring, caring for creation, and trusting in God’s ultimate redemption.

• Closing Scripture: “If the Son sets you free, you will be free indeed” (John 8:36), affirming that Christ’s work embodies the eternal Jubilee.

This outline spans biblical theology from Leviticus 25 to Revelation 21, presenting a cohesive view of Jubilee as God’s design for liberation, rest, and restoration, ultimately fulfilled in Christ.

Judge the Angels

1. Judgment Role of the Faithful (Believers Judging with God)

Jesus’ Claim: Believers Sharing in Judgment

In Matthew 19:28, Jesus tells His disciples:

• “Truly I tell you, at the renewal of all things, when the Son of Man sits on his glorious throne, you who have followed me will also sit on twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel.”

In 1 Corinthians 6:2-3, Paul expands this idea by stating:

• “Do you not know that the Lord’s people will judge the world?… Do you not know that we will judge angels?”

These ideas connect to Old Testament passages where God’s people play a role in judgment and possess authority alongside Him.

Old Testament Passages

• Psalm 149:6-9

“May the praise of God be in their mouths and a double-edged sword in their hands, to inflict vengeance on the nations and punishment on the peoples, to bind their kings with fetters, their nobles with shackles of iron, to carry out the sentence written against them—this is the glory of all his faithful people.”

Psalm 149 envisions God’s faithful people actively involved in judgment, executing God’s justice on the nations. This passage aligns with the New Testament concept of believers sharing in judgment with Christ.

• Daniel 7:22

“Until the Ancient of Days came and pronounced judgment in favor of the holy people of the Most High, and the time came when they possessed the kingdom.”

Daniel prophesies that judgment will be given “in favor of the holy people” who will possess the kingdom. This aligns closely with Jesus’ words about His followers being entrusted with authority in the age to come.

2. The Messiah as Judge

Jesus’ Claim: Authority as Judge

In John 5:22, Jesus asserts His role as judge:

• “Moreover, the Father judges no one, but has entrusted all judgment to the Son.”

In Matthew 25:31-32, Jesus describes the Son of Man judging the nations:

• “When the Son of Man comes in his glory… He will sit on his glorious throne. All the nations will be gathered before him, and he will separate the people one from another as a shepherd separates the sheep from the goats.”

This role as judge fulfills Old Testament expectations of the Messiah bringing divine judgment.

Old Testament Passages

• Isaiah 11:3-4

“He will not judge by what he sees with his eyes, or decide by what he hears with his ears; but with righteousness he will judge the needy, with justice he will give decisions for the poor of the earth.”

Isaiah’s prophecy describes the Messiah judging with perfect righteousness. Jesus’ claim to execute judgment echoes this passage, as He fulfills this messianic role.

• Psalm 2:8-9

“Ask me, and I will make the nations your inheritance, the ends of the earth your possession. You will break them with a rod of iron; you will dash them to pieces like pottery.”

Psalm 2 portrays the Messiah as the one to whom God grants authority to judge the nations. This imagery of ruling with a “rod of iron” reflects Jesus’ application of this to Himself (Revelation 2:26-27).

3. Role of the Faithful in Reigning with the Messiah

Apostolic Claim: Believers Reigning with Christ

In 2 Timothy 2:12, Paul says:

• “If we endure, we will also reign with him.”

This promise that believers will reign with Christ is rooted in Old Testament depictions of the righteous sharing in the kingdom and authority of God.

Old Testament Passages

• Daniel 7:27

“Then the sovereignty, power and greatness of all the kingdoms under heaven will be handed over to the holy people of the Most High. His kingdom will be an everlasting kingdom, and all rulers will worship and obey him.”

Daniel envisions a time when God’s people are granted authority in His kingdom. This parallels the New Testament promise that believers will reign with Christ.

• Psalm 110:1-2

“The LORD says to my lord: ‘Sit at my right hand until I make your enemies a footstool for your feet.’ The LORD will extend your mighty scepter from Zion, saying, ‘Rule in the midst of your enemies!’”

Psalm 110, a messianic psalm, foretells the Messiah’s rule alongside God. Jesus interprets this psalm as referring to Himself (Matthew 22:44), implying that His followers will share in this reign.

Summary

The Old Testament consistently envisions a future in which the faithful, alongside the Messiah, participate in God’s kingdom rule and justice. Jesus and the apostles draw on these themes, showing their fulfillment in Christ’s role as judge and king, while extending the promise of shared judgment and authority to believers. The New Testament thus presents the righteous as sharing in God’s final judgment and reign, deeply rooted in the messianic and eschatological hopes of the Old Testament.

Hades

Sheol’s Land of Shadow according to Christ

By examining Matthew 11:21-24, along with other New Testament (NT) passages and relevant Septuagint (LXX) and Second Temple sources, we’ll explore how Hades in Jesus’ teachings encapsulates both continuity with and evolution beyond traditional Jewish concepts of the afterlife. The paper will conclude with reflections from the Gospel of John on Hades as an entity ultimately defeated through Christ.

Introduction: Matthew 11:21-24 and Jesus’ Use of Hades

In Matthew 11:21-24, Jesus rebukes the cities of Chorazin, Bethsaida, and Capernaum for their failure to repent, despite witnessing his miracles. He declares that if the same miracles had been performed in Tyre and Sidon—Gentile cities traditionally associated with paganism—they would have repented in “sackcloth and ashes.” This comparison of Israelite and Gentile cities amplifies the severity of Chorazin, Bethsaida, and Capernaum’s rejection of Jesus’ message. In verse 23, Jesus intensifies his condemnation by warning that Capernaum, “exalted to heaven,” will be “brought down to Hades.” This shift from “heaven” to “Hades” is deeply symbolic, contrasting honor with disgrace, and life with death.

Each city carries unique historical and spiritual significance. Chorazin and Bethsaida were located near the Sea of Galilee and formed part of Jesus’ primary ministry region, witnessing many of his teachings and miracles. Capernaum served as Jesus’ home base in Galilee, where he performed notable miracles (Matthew 8:5-13, John 4:46-54) and frequently taught in the synagogue (Mark 1:21). Their rejection of Jesus carries a sense of betrayal, as these cities had a firsthand experience of his works. By choosing the term Hades to describe their destiny, Jesus not only invokes the image of death and judgment but also signals a fate tied to separation from divine favor.

Jesus’ use of Hades here and in Luke 16:23 reflects a nuanced understanding of the term, aligning both with Jewish concepts of Sheol as a realm of the dead and with the Greek idea of Hades as an underworld where moral distinction can be made. Jesus’ choice of this term represents a conscious engagement with the cultural and theological connotations of Hades as it was understood in the Second Temple period, where the lines between Hebrew and Hellenistic views of the afterlife had become intertwined.

Purpose of Study

The significance of Jesus’ use of Hades in Matthew 11:23 raises questions about how he and his contemporaries understood this term. By choosing Hades over other terms like Gehenna—which Jesus uses elsewhere to describe a place of final punishment—Jesus introduces Hades as a morally significant realm where divine judgment begins, even if it is not the ultimate destination of condemnation. His use of Hades prompts a study of the term’s development from its roots in Sheol to its complex connotations in Hellenistic and Second Temple Jewish literature. Understanding Hades in this period provides essential context for interpreting Jesus’ teachings, which assume the moral framework and eschatological expectations present in the Septuagint (LXX) and other Jewish texts of the era.

In this study, we will trace the development of Hades from its LXX roots as a translation of Sheol to its usage in Second Temple literature and, finally, to its role in Jesus’ teachings and other New Testament texts. We will see how Hades, as the LXX translators rendered it, came to embody more than just a grave but a place where moral realities and divine accountability begin. The study will conclude with reflections from the Gospel of John, where Hades is depicted as a defeated entity, replaced by the promise of eternal life through Christ.

Part 1: The Hellenistic Influence on Second Temple Judaism and the LXX

In the centuries leading up to the New Testament period, Second Temple Judaism was deeply influenced by Hellenistic culture. Following Alexander the Great’s conquest in the 4th century BCE, Greek language, philosophy, and religious ideas spread widely across the eastern Mediterranean. For Jewish communities living under Hellenistic rule. As a result, Jewish thought regarding the afterlife incorporated new layers of meaning that became influential by the time of Jesus. This development is reflected particularly in the Septuagint (LXX), where translators chose to render the Hebrew term Sheol as Hades. Understanding the use of Hades in the LXX helps illuminate Jesus’ references to it, as he and his followers assumed a Jewish audience familiar with these adaptations.

Hellenistic Culture and Jewish Thought

Under Hellenistic influence, Jewish views of the afterlife became more complex. Greek thought introduced concepts of the soul, underworld, and moral judgment after death that were less pronounced in early Hebrew scripture. In Greek religion, Hades was both the god of the underworld and the underworld itself, a realm where all souls resided after death, whether virtuous or wicked. This conception often involved moral distinctions: some versions of the Greek Hades included separate areas for the virtuous (such as the Elysian Fields) and the wicked (Tartarus), suggesting that a person’s actions in life impacted their afterlife experience.

While traditional Jewish thought focused on Sheol as a place of silence and darkness where all the dead reside in a shadowy existence, Greek influence began to introduce ideas of moral division and intermediate judgment. By the Second Temple period, Jewish apocalyptic literature, such as 1 Enoch and 2 Esdras, reflects a belief that the afterlife included a distinction between the fates of the righteous and the wicked. These developments reflect a synthesis of Jewish and Greek ideas, which led to a new understanding of Hades that would resonate within early Christianity.

The Role of the Septuagint (LXX)

The Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible completed by Jewish scholars in Alexandria around the 3rd to 2nd centuries BCE, is critical to understanding Hades in the New Testament. The translators chose Hades as the Greek equivalent for the Hebrew term Sheol, marking a significant cultural and theological shift. This translation allowed Jewish readers to interpret Hebrew scripture through a Hellenistic lens, thereby bridging their native beliefs with the broader Greek cultural context. In using the word Hades, the LXX translators imbued Sheol with a new association: while it retained its role as the realm of the dead, it now carried the Greek connotation of an afterlife with the potential for moral judgment and segregation.

Key LXX Texts on Hades

• Psalm 16:10 (LXX 15:10)

“For You will not abandon my soul to Hades, nor allow Your Holy One to see corruption.”

This verse, quoted by Peter in Acts 2:27, portrays Hades as a realm from which God’s chosen can be spared. In the Hebrew text, Sheol suggests only the grave, but Hades in the Greek text introduces the idea of an afterlife from which God can rescue the faithful.

• Isaiah 14:9

“Sheol beneath is stirred up to meet you when you come,” referring to the fallen king of Babylon. The LXX version uses Hades, associating it with a place of awareness and moral reflection. This portrayal of Hades suggests an underworld that responds to moral deeds, especially for those who fall from great heights.

• Job 7:9 and Ecclesiastes 9:10

These texts use Sheol to describe the state of death as a place of inactivity and absence of knowledge. However, by translating these as Hades in the LXX, Greek-speaking Jews were prompted to think of Hades in terms of the Greek underworld, with associations of both oblivion and, occasionally, moral outcome.

Jewish Literature of the Second Temple Period

In the Second Temple period, Jewish texts expanded on the notion of Hades as a divided realm for the righteous and the wicked, laying the foundation for later Christian understandings.

• 1 Enoch 22

This text divides Hades into different areas for the righteous, the partially righteous, and the wicked, each awaiting the final judgment. In this model, Hades has “compartments” based on moral standing, showing the influence of both Jewish and Greek ideas of afterlife justice.

• Wisdom of Solomon 2:1, 3:1-4

These passages contrast the fate of the souls of the righteous, who are in peace with God, and the wicked, who suffer even before the final judgment. Hades is portrayed as a place where divine justice is present, integrating Sheol’s traditional meaning of death with Greek views of an afterlife shaped by moral character.

• 4 Maccabees 13:17

The author speaks of the punishment of the wicked and the rest of the righteous, suggesting a moral outcome beyond death. Hades is depicted as a place where souls are conscious of their moral state, reinforcing the belief that death does not erase the consequences of one’s actions.

Influence on Jesus’ Teachings and Christian Thought

By the time of Jesus, these Jewish beliefs about Hades were well-established, giving his audience a framework in which Hades was no longer a neutral grave but a realm with moral overtones. Jesus’ use of Hades in Matthew 11:23 and Luke 16:23 fits within this context, as he builds upon the Second Temple understanding of Hades as an intermediary state where the dead await either vindication or condemnation. By referring to Hades in these passages, Jesus’ teachings resonate with both traditional Jewish ideas and the newer Hellenistic influences that his audience would have recognized.

The use of Hades as a translation for Sheol in the LXX shows the deepening impact of Hellenistic thought on Jewish eschatology. While Sheol originally denoted a morally neutral state of the dead, Hades in the LXX took on a more structured and morally complex meaning, preparing the way for Jesus’ own use of the term. In Jesus’ teachings, Hades conveys the idea of a shadowy, intermediate state, serving both as a place of waiting and as a precursor to divine judgment, aligning closely with the Second Temple Jewish thought that influenced early Christian beliefs.

Part 2: Second Temple Jewish Literature

Hades as a Realm of Moral Distinction

The Second Temple period (516 BCE–70 CE) saw a deepening of Jewish thought around the afterlife, particularly influenced by Hellenistic ideas of an underworld with morally defined regions. Various Jewish apocalyptic and wisdom texts from this period explore Hades as more than just a realm of death, now adding dimensions of justice, comfort, and torment in the interim between death and final resurrection. These writings suggest a belief in moral accountability after death, providing essential context for understanding how Jesus used the concept of Hades in the New Testament.

1. 1 Enoch 22 – Hades as a Divided Realm

The Book of Enoch, an influential text from this period, describes Hades (often referred to as Sheol in Jewish texts) as a structured, divided realm with distinct sections for souls based on their earthly actions. In 1 Enoch 22, Hades is presented as having four compartments:

One for the righteous, where they find peace as they await resurrection.

Another for moderately good souls who experience limited suffering.

Two for the wicked, with the most severe suffering reserved for those who committed violent or especially grievous sins.

This depiction of Hades illustrates a shift from the Hebrew Bible’s neutral Sheol toward an understanding of the afterlife as morally stratified. The divisions reflect a concept of preliminary judgment where souls are separated and receive treatment based on their moral status. Jesus’ references to Hades, especially in parables like that of the rich man and Lazarus, reflect these ideas, showing Hades as a place of both comfort and torment depending on one’s life choices .

2. Wisdom of Solomon 3:1-4 – Righteous Souls Protected in Hades

The Wisdom of Solomon, written in Greek for a Hellenistic Jewish audience, offers a comforting view of the afterlife for the righteous. Wisdom 3:1 states, “The souls of the righteous are in the hand of God, and no torment shall touch them.” This suggests that while the righteous may be in Hades or Sheol, they are shielded from suffering. In Wisdom 3:3-4, the dead are described as finding peace and safety, even if outwardly they appear to have “died.”

Although Hades is not explicitly mentioned, this concept of afterlife peace for the faithful reflects the moral differentiation emerging in Jewish thought. The righteous have a distinct, protected state even in death, prefiguring Jesus’ descriptions of Hades as having places of comfort as well as suffering, such as in the parable of Lazarus and the rich man .

3. 4 Maccabees 13:17 – Reward and Punishment in Hades

In 4 Maccabees, the Hades concept is tied closely to both suffering and reward. 4 Maccabees 13:17 asserts that those who endure suffering for righteousness can expect comfort in the afterlife, while the wicked face judgment. This reflects the period’s understanding of Hades as a place of intermediate moral consequence—an idea that Jesus mirrors when he describes Hades as a place of torment for the unrepentant.

The concept of Hades as both a place of suffering and a place where the righteous await vindication illustrates the intermediate judgment that Second Temple Jews anticipated. The suffering or comfort one experiences in Hades is seen as a precursor to final judgment, aligning closely with how Jesus presents Hades as a realm where moral reckoning has already begun but is not yet complete .

4. 2 Esdras 7:32-38 – Hades as Temporary

In 2 Esdras (also known as 4 Ezra), the vision of Hades includes a temporal aspect, with the dead awaiting final judgment. 2 Esdras 7:32-38 explains that after death, souls experience either “rest” or “torment” until the Day of Judgment. Hades is depicted as a temporary holding place, with a distinction between the righteous, who find peace, and the wicked, who are tormented.

This text reinforces the notion of Hades as an interim realm where souls await their final fate. Jesus’ teachings, such as in Luke 16:23 with the parable of the rich man and Lazarus, reflect this intermediate view, as Hades is depicted not as the final state but as a holding place for those awaiting judgment .

Jesus’ Use of Hades

These Second Temple texts depict Hades as an increasingly morally significant realm. No longer just Sheol’s shadowy land of the dead, Hades in these writings serves as a place of divine oversight, structured to reflect each soul’s earthly actions. The righteous await resurrection in peace, while the wicked experience a form of suffering. Jesus’ teachings resonate with this period’s view of Hades as a realm where moral and spiritual reckoning begins.

As we move into Part 3, we’ll examine how Jesus draws on this layered understanding of Hades to convey the seriousness of repentance and the weight of unresponsiveness to divine revelation. By using Hades in both direct rebuke (Matthew 11:23) and illustrative parables (Luke 16:23), Jesus emphasizes Hades as a temporary but significant state of accountability under divine authority.

Part 2: Jesus’ Use of Hades in the New Testament

Jesus’ teachings reveal a complex view of Hades that aligns with the Second Temple Jewish understanding of the afterlife as a temporary realm for the dead, yet introduces unique theological dimensions. By using Hades in his rebukes, parables, and metaphors, Jesus expands on the term’s associations with judgment and separation from God. This part examines Jesus’ key uses of Hades in Matthew 11:23, Luke 16:23, and Revelation 1:18 (as recorded by John), which demonstrate his adaptation of Jewish and Hellenistic perspectives to emphasize divine accountability and the impermanence of Hades under God’s authority.

1. Matthew 11:23 – Capernaum’s Descent to Hades

In Matthew 11:23, Jesus declares that Capernaum, despite being “exalted to heaven,” will be “brought down to Hades.” Here, Hades symbolizes a fall from a privileged position of revelation and divine opportunity to a state of disgrace and judgment. Unlike Gehenna, which Jesus uses to refer to final condemnation (e.g., Matthew 10:28), Hades in this context suggests a descent into a realm where the unrepentant face the consequences of rejecting Jesus’ teachings, but it is not yet their final state. The juxtaposition of “heaven” and “Hades” serves as a stark metaphor for the contrast between divine favor and separation.

This statement intensifies Jesus’ warning to the cities of Galilee, particularly Capernaum, which had witnessed many of his miracles (Matthew 8:5-13; John 4:46-54). Capernaum, once “exalted to heaven” by virtue of its exposure to Jesus, faces a drastic reversal. Jesus’ reference to Hades emphasizes accountability; those who experience God’s direct revelation are responsible for their response, and unrepentance leads to separation, marked by Hades as a place of disgrace.

2. Luke 16:23 – The Rich Man and Lazarus

In Luke 16:23, Jesus tells the parable of the rich man and Lazarus, describing the rich man as being “in Hades, in torment.” This passage provides one of the clearest images of Hades as a realm of temporary punishment and moral consequence, distinct from the righteous state of Lazarus, who is comforted in Abraham’s bosom. The rich man’s suffering in Hades is portrayed as both physical and psychological, as he is separated by an impassable chasm from Abraham and Lazarus.

Jesus’ use of Hades here incorporates Second Temple Jewish beliefs about moral accountability in the afterlife. The rich man’s torment in Hades does not yet represent his final condemnation but serves as a precursor to ultimate judgment. This vision aligns with ideas in 1 Enoch 22 and 4 Maccabees 13:17, where the righteous and wicked are separated in an intermediary state. The rich man’s torment highlights the reality of divine judgment in Hades for those who ignore God’s expectations, especially regarding compassion for the poor. This parable thus reinforces the Second Temple concept of Hades as a morally distinct, temporary place where the soul’s actions are already being evaluated.

3. Revelation 1:18 – Jesus Holds the Keys of Death and Hades

In Revelation 1:18, Jesus, speaking through the apostle John, declares that he is “the Living One” who “holds the keys of death and Hades.” This passage underscores the theological principle that Hades, while significant, is ultimately under Jesus’ authority. Jesus’ dominion over Hades implies that he can liberate souls from its grasp, a concept echoed in Acts 2:27, where Peter cites Psalm 16:10 to declare that Jesus’ soul was not left in Hades but resurrected, thus overcoming death.

The imagery of Jesus holding “the keys of death and Hades” illustrates Hades as a temporary state over which Christ holds ultimate power. This is consistent with Revelation 20:13-14, where Hades is cast into the “lake of fire,” representing its end in the final judgment. Jesus’ control over Hades means that it serves a purpose within God’s plan, but it is not an eternal destination for the faithful. By asserting his authority over Hades, Jesus assures his followers that they are not destined for it if they believe in him, as Hades itself will be conquered.

4. Theological Implications of Jesus’ Use of Hades

Temporary State of Judgment: Jesus’ references to Hades convey that it is not the final judgment (as in Gehenna) but a temporary place where the dead face initial consequences for their actions. His teachings align with the Jewish and Hellenistic view that Hades is an intermediate state, where individuals await the resurrection or final judgment.

Divine Accountability: By situating unrepentant communities or individuals in Hades, Jesus emphasizes that exposure to God’s message requires a response. Both in Matthew 11:23 and Luke 16:23, Hades is the consequence of ignoring divine revelation, indicating that this realm is tied to moral and spiritual failure.

Christ’s Dominion over Hades: Revelation 1:18 and Acts 2:27 portray Hades as subject to Christ’s authority. Unlike Gehenna, where final separation from God occurs, Hades is a place from which Christ can rescue or judge, aligning with the Christian belief in resurrection and ultimate judgment.

In summary, Jesus’ teachings reflect an understanding of Hades as a morally charged, intermediate state. His use of Hades aligns with Second Temple Jewish perspectives that saw it as a realm of separation and divine accountability, not an eternal state of punishment. By emphasizing his authority over it, Jesus transforms Hades into a temporary holding place for the dead that ultimately submits to his power. This theological framework lays the foundation for later New Testament writers, who will expand on Hades as a defeated entity within Christian eschatology.

Part 3: Hades in Broader New Testament Thought

Beyond Jesus’ teachings, Hades appears in other New Testament writings as a temporary realm where the dead await judgment, emphasizing both separation and accountability. Early Christian authors developed Jesus’ concept of Hades by connecting it to broader eschatological themes of resurrection, judgment, and Christ’s authority over death. This section explores Acts 2:27-31, Revelation 20:13-14, and related passages that deepen our understanding of Hades as a conquered entity within Christian theology.

1. Acts 2:27-31 – Peter’s Sermon on Jesus’ Resurrection

In Acts 2:27-31, the apostle Peter, in his Pentecost sermon, quotes Psalm 16:10: “For You will not abandon my soul to Hades, nor allow Your Holy One to see decay.” Here, Peter asserts that Jesus’ resurrection fulfilled this prophecy, as God did not allow his “Holy One” to remain in Hades. The term Hades in this context serves as a stand-in for the state of death, aligning with its use in the Septuagint (LXX) translation of the Hebrew word Sheol.

Peter’s use of Hades emphasizes the temporary nature of this realm, especially for those under God’s favor. Jesus’ resurrection from Hades signifies his victory over death, and by quoting Psalm 16:10, Peter reaffirms Hades as a place from which the righteous can be delivered. This concept, which echoes Second Temple beliefs of Hades as a morally significant yet temporary realm, underscores the power of God to redeem the righteous from death.

This understanding of Hades as a defeated state is foundational in early Christian thought, influencing how believers viewed their own relationship to death. For early Christians, the resurrection marked the beginning of the end for Hades as the domain of death, as believers hoped to be resurrected to eternal life, bypassing the constraints of Hades altogether.

2. Revelation 20:13-14 – The Final Judgment and the End of Hades

In Revelation 20:13-14, the apostle John envisions a scene where “Death and Hades” give up the dead within them, who then stand before God’s throne for judgment. Following this, “Death and Hades” are cast into the lake of fire—a symbol of the final and irreversible judgment, sometimes equated with hell. This scene depicts the ultimate end of Hades, suggesting it is only a temporary state for souls awaiting final judgment.

This passage in Revelation emphasizes two key points:

Hades as Temporary and Defeated: John describes Hades as a holding place, distinct from the final state of condemnation represented by the lake of fire. This temporary nature, foreshadowed in Jesus’ teachings, culminates here in Revelation, where Hades itself is subject to destruction.

Christ’s Authority Over Hades: By depicting Hades as an entity that can be cast aside, Revelation highlights Christ’s triumph over death and his authority to release souls from Hades for judgment. This authority is reinforced in Revelation 1:18, where Jesus declares he holds the “keys of death and Hades.” In Christian eschatology, Hades has no ultimate power over the faithful, as Christ’s victory ensures their deliverance from its grasp.

3. 1 Corinthians 15:26 – The Last Enemy, Death

In 1 Corinthians 15:26, Paul states that “the last enemy to be destroyed is death.” Although he does not mention Hades explicitly, Paul’s words align with Revelation’s depiction of Hades’ defeat and reflect the Christian belief that death and Hades are ultimately powerless over those in Christ. This concept shapes the Christian hope that Hades, as the temporary realm of the dead, will be completely overcome in the resurrection.

For Paul, the defeat of death is central to Christian faith, and he underscores this in 1 Corinthians 15:54-55 by quoting Hosea 13:14, declaring, “Death is swallowed up in victory.” In this passage, Paul envisions a time when Hades will no longer hold the dead, as resurrection offers believers life beyond its constraints. This view corresponds with Jesus’ own assertions that those who believe in him will “never die” (John 11:26), and that even in death, they are only “sleeping” (Mark 5:39).

4. Contrast with Gehenna

While Hades serves as a temporary realm of the dead, Gehenna in the New Testament represents a final state of judgment and condemnation. Jesus frequently uses Gehenna to describe the final separation from God for the unrighteous, emphasizing that Hades is not synonymous with hell but rather a precursor to judgment. For example, in Matthew 10:28, Jesus warns, “Do not fear those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul. Rather, fear him who can destroy both soul and body in Gehenna.” This distinction shows that Hades is a temporary holding place, whereas Gehenna, or hell, represents the ultimate and final separation from God.

Theological Implications of Hades in the Broader New Testament

The New Testament’s portrayal of Hades establishes it as a defeated realm under Christ’s authority, consistent with early Christian teachings that envision a future in which Hades no longer has power over believers. Key theological implications include:

Intermediate State: Hades functions as an intermediate state where souls await final judgment. This aligns with the Second Temple view of Hades as morally neutral or divided, a holding place rather than an ultimate destination.

Christ’s Victory Over Hades: Jesus’ resurrection represents a victory over Hades, making it possible for believers to bypass its hold. Passages like Acts 2:27 and Revelation 1:18 underscore that Hades is under Christ’s control, with no final power over those who belong to him.

The Final Eradication of Death and Hades: Revelation’s vision of the end of Hades in the lake of fire echoes Paul’s teaching that death will be “swallowed up in victory.” Hades, along with death, will ultimately be eradicated, solidifying the Christian hope of eternal life free from the constraints of death.

In summary, Hades in the broader New Testament reflects a continuity with Jesus’ teaching and the Second Temple tradition, while incorporating the unique Christian doctrine of resurrection and eternal life through Christ. Hades is portrayed as a temporary state subject to Christ’s authority, destined for final defeat. This reinforces the Christian belief in a future where believers are entirely free from death and Hades, enjoying eternal life in God’s presence.

Part 4: Hades as the “Last Enemy” in Christian Theology

Throughout the New Testament, Hades serves as a powerful symbol of death and temporary judgment, ultimately culminating in its defeat through Christ’s redemptive work. Jesus’ teachings and those of his disciples present Hades as an intermediate realm that holds the dead but does not have the final say. Instead, Hades is a conquered entity, subject to Christ’s authority and destined for destruction, echoing the broader theme of death’s ultimate defeat in Christian eschatology.

1. Hades and the “Last Enemy” – 1 Corinthians 15:26

In 1 Corinthians 15:26, Paul declares, “The last enemy to be destroyed is death.” This statement frames death and Hades as obstacles to be overcome by Christ’s resurrection and the eventual resurrection of believers. For Paul, death is a defeated power, emptied of its ultimate hold over humanity by Jesus’ triumph. In 1 Corinthians 15:54-55, he reinforces this idea, quoting Hosea 13:14 to announce that “Death is swallowed up in victory,” proclaiming, “O death, where is your victory? O death, where is your sting?” This perspective underscores that, in the Christian understanding, Hades is a temporary state that will be rendered powerless in the eschatological future.

For early Christians, death and Hades represented temporary barriers that Christ had already breached through his resurrection. Paul’s teachings on the resurrection affirm that believers need not fear Hades, as they are promised eternal life with Christ, bypassing Hades’ hold. This theology of resurrection and eternal life became foundational to Christian thought, framing Hades not as a permanent place of judgment but as a defeated entity, awaiting its final eradication.

2. Jesus’ Teachings on Eternal Life and Hades

Jesus’ teachings, as recorded in John’s Gospel, further reinforce this view of Hades as ultimately powerless over those who believe in him. In John 11:25-26, Jesus says, “I am the resurrection and the life. Whoever believes in me, though he die, yet shall he live, and everyone who lives and believes in me shall never die.” Here, Jesus presents himself as the answer to death, with believers assured of eternal life beyond the grave. His promise of resurrection renders Hades irrelevant for believers, who are described as merely “sleeping” in passages like Mark 5:39.

The idea of death as “sleep” further emphasizes that Hades is not a final destination but a temporary state from which believers will awaken to eternal life. By using this language, Jesus frames Hades as a realm that holds no permanent power over those who follow him. In Revelation 1:18, Jesus’ assertion that he holds the “keys of death and Hades” signifies his authority over this realm, ensuring that his followers will be freed from its grasp.

3. Revelation 20:13-14 – The Ultimate Eradication of Hades

In Revelation 20:13-14, Hades is depicted as giving up the dead within it, only to be cast into the lake of fire along with death itself. This imagery represents the final judgment, in which both death and Hades are destroyed. For early Christians, this vision provided a profound reassurance: death and Hades, the last enemies, would be obliterated, allowing believers to enter into eternal life with God.

This ultimate defeat of Hades aligns with Jesus’ teachings and the broader Christian doctrine of resurrection, which envisions a future where believers are freed from all remnants of death. Hades, once the “land of shadow” where all souls resided, becomes a conquered realm with no lasting power. The casting of Hades into the lake of fire symbolizes its irrelevance in the new creation, where there will be “no more death, nor sorrow, nor crying” (Revelation 21:4).

4. Christian Hope Beyond Hades – “He Who Believes Will Never Die”

The New Testament presents Hades as a temporary state that has been overtaken by Christ’s victory over death. Jesus’ promise that “he who believes will never die” (John 11:26) affirms that Hades has no final power over his followers. For Christians, Hades represents a past from which they are rescued, a “shadow” that has been dispelled by the light of resurrection. Believers who “fall asleep” in Christ await not the shadowy realm of Hades, but the fullness of eternal life in God’s presence.

In summary, Hades in the New Testament transitions from Sheol’s neutral abode of the dead to a place symbolizing temporary separation and judgment. Yet, through Jesus’ teachings and the early church’s eschatological vision, Hades ultimately becomes a defeated entity with no hold over those in Christ. By the end of the biblical narrative, Hades is erased from the eschatological future, confirming the Christian hope that “the last enemy,” death itself, has been destroyed forever.